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INFORMATION CONTENT OF IMPLIED VOLATILITY, SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS

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Samu Kuosmanen

Master’s Thesis in Accounting and Finance

VAASA 2006

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UNIVERSITY OF VAASA Faculty of Business Studies

Author: Samu Kuosmanen

Topic of the Thesis: Information Content of Implied Volatility, Skewness and Kurtosis

Name of the Supervisor: Petri Sahlström

Degree: M.Sc. (Economics and Business Administration) Department: Department of Accounting and Finance

Major Subject: Accounting and Finance

Line: Finance

Year of Entering the University: 2000

Year of Completing the Thesis: 2006 Pages: 68

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether option price implied volatility, skewness and kurtosis are good estimates of realized return distribution. Earlier studies suggest that implied moments, i.e. volatility, skewness and kurtosis, of the distribution do contain some information about future price behavior, but the information is usually biased and exaggerates the importance of past market shocks.

This study employs method introduced by Corrado & Su to obtain estimates of implied volatility, skewness and kurtosis. The data consists of daily close values of DAX index for years 1999-2001. Furthermore, regression analysis is used to compare the information content of implied and history-based estimates to see if implied estimates contain some additional information about future price behavior.

The overall results indicate that implied volatility, skewness and kurtosis do contain some information about the future volatility, skewness and kurtosis, but as the prediction power of these models used in this study is so low, it is difficult to implement this information on predicting the future.

KEYWORDS: option pricing, Black-Scholes, skewness and kurtosis

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1. INTRODUCTION

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1.1. Purpose of the study

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1.2. Structure of the study

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1. Implied Volatility

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"*(" (* ) + )' () 2 (* )() *(( 2 (* )()

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) 1)+ * *" "*+ , + ,( ' * )"@ , "* ) ( *2 ' "

)+ ' * ) + " ' ) ' 2) + * 9 )(

5 )' () 2 (* )() ' * *2 ' "* 9 *, '

2 (* )() ) ) )+* 8 * )+ )" )+7 ( +7 ' 2 (* )() ' () 2 (* )()

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( " , ' * 1 A )+) + 2 (* )()

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+ ' *+ ) ) ) 77 * ) + )" "*+ , + * '

(*"13 " ( )" ( * ; ' + ' 1 9+ *+ 1 )

' * )+ ) ' * ()1 F* 9 *+ = &#!> 9

' ( 7 + *() 7 9 ? *+ ) +@ * E = &&6@ && > 9

*' 3 * () ? *+ ) + *+ 5 * *+ E 5 )(+ = &&4> *+ ,1 + *(

= &&6> 9 * () . ' ) ( + ' )*( ? *+ ) + )+7 1 9+ *+

1 ) ) + )")+7 ' ( ( , *)+ )' () ) ), ) + )+

)' )(* ' *++ * )' () 2 (* )() ) *(( , *)+ ? " * ) "

' *, )' * ) + )' () ) ), ) +

2.2. Estimation of Implied Distributions

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*2 ) ) + )" )' () ,*,)() ) ), ) + *+ 9*

" 2 ' * () @ ,*,)() ) ), ) + "1 ' * 1 + *2

, + *(( )' * ' ) )"*( )' ) @ 9 )" F*"19 *+

,)+ )+ = &&6D!> " ' ' + , 2 )+* )* ' , "* @ *

* D J) ' * + "* ,*,)() ? ' 2 + *+ 2 +

)+ * * ' * + , + )+ ) )"*( " 2 + 7

* "( * ( ),( J

,)+ )+< * )"( ' () )+ ' )*( = &&4> " +" + * + ) +

' )2 ) 13+ *( ,*,)()) ' )' (*+ ( , 2

*+ ) + )" *+ )+7 + 3+ ,*,)()) , )(

)' () ,)+ ' )*( 5 )+ " * ' + +7 *

5 = )7)+*(2 ) + +7 * ' @ +7 * &&0>@ )' 1 <

5 = )' 1 &&-> *+ )' )K* ) + ' ,)+ )+ )+

' + +7 * 5 ,( ' * )"@ , "* ) " ,*,)()) )

) ( * 2 2 (* )( @ 9) 2*( ; ' )+7 ' + 7* )2 )7 ( ))2 @

9 )" ) ( ,*,)() ) ), ) + 2 ) + ' ( 7+ ' *( ) *(

) )" ( 7 *)( ,*,)()) 9) ) ' + *"8 ) *)(

,*,)()) ) + 9) )1)+7 )" ' 0 )+ )+) 9 ( , + @

+ +* ( ) ) + "* )+ *( )+*+")*(' * 1 *+ )+ (* ) +

? * (* ) + 9 ( , + , *)+ )" ) + 9) )1 )"

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)+ , 9 + *( )1)+7 )" )' 1 < ' )() ) *@ ) " 2

, + *+ )K +, 7 = & #>@ * ) *+ ) + 9) )1)+7

)" ' K )+ )+) 9 ( ?) @ ' * ) * ) 13+ *(

,*,)() ) ), ) + " ( , , *)+ , "*(" (* )+7 " + )2*

)" " )1)+7 )" *" ) + = ,)+ )+ &&4>

F*"19 *+ ,)+ )+ = &&6> )' ) * ) + " )+ " )+

,)+ )+A = &&4> * )"( )2 ) 13+ *( ,*,)() ) ), ) + '

) + )" * * )+ ) " + *)+ *(( * *+

8 " 2 )+7 E 00 *+ )+ ? ) + *+ * +

*+ )+ * * E 00 )+ ? ( 2 ( ' )( &6# " ' , &&- * * ) * ; "" )+7 )2) + "1 ' * 1 " * + " , &@ &#

"" )+ * * ) @ *+ F*"19 *+ ,)+ )+ " ' * )' ()

) ), ) + , *+ * " * )+ * ) )+" " *+7 )+ *

, 9 + 3" * *+ 3" * ) ), ) + 3" * ) ), ) + *

2 "( ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) +@ 9 )( 3" * ) ), ) + ? ),)

)7+))"*+ ( 1 ) *+ ( 3 1 9+ ( 7 @ ) * )7+))"*+

" *+7 )+ ) ), ) + * " * @ ) ' * * * 1 9+ *+

1 ) * 8 ) *,( * ) + 9 3" * ( 2 ( ) + 9 '

)' () ) ), ) + * ' *+ )7+))"*+ "()+ )+ E 00 )+ ?

* ' ()1 ( *+ ) ) , " *

+ ) 1 9+ *+ : ) )+ E 00 + ? + ' () ,

) + )" = &&6> * *+ 77 1 9+ *+ 1 )

+ ) ), ) + * * " 2 (* )() ' )( *+ )2 1 9+ 3

*+ : ) 3 ; (*"13 " ( ) + )")+7 ' ( )+7 *' 3 * ()

) ? *+ ) + * + ' *( + ) +" ) + 2 ( ? + (*"13

" ( ' (9 )" )+" * + +3+ ' *( 1 9+ *+ 1 ) )+

"1 + ) ), ) +

* )"*(( ) ' ( ) ( ) + 2*( 9 )" ) 8 *( (*"13 " ( 2*(

( * ; ' + 1 9+ *+ 1 ) )1 )' () 2 (* )() @

1 9+ *+ 1 ) * *( * *' 9 )" "*++ , ) " ( , 2

' ' * 1 *+ ' , )' * ' 9 +* ( @ )

? + (*"13 " ( ' ("*+ , )' (*+ ( )' * *((

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' ' + @ *+ * 2)* ) + =)' () 2 (* )() >@ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) @ '

* *

5 *)+ ) 9* )+2 )7* @ 9 ? + (*"13 " (

' ( ' 2 )")+7 ,)* 3 5 *+ 3 5 ) + * *

)+ ) " + ) E 00 )+ ? ) + @ *+ ) ) * ;

, , *" )+7 + 2*( )2) + * ' + )+7

' * ) )+7 % *( A = &#!> )' (*+ 8 * ) + " @ *

*+ )' * )' () 2 (* )() (*"13 " ( ' ( *+ )' ()

2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) ? + (*"13 " ( ' ( *"

* + "*(" (* )"*( 2*( *" ) + )+7

* *' * )+ )+ (*"13 " ( *+ ? + (*"13 " ( ' ( *+

' " ' * )"*( )" ' * 1 )" ( 9

* )+7 +( (*"13 " ( ' (@ + *2 *7 #&H )"*( )" *

) ,) 3* 1 * @ 9 )( )+7 ? + ' ( +( 6-H )"*(

)" () ) ,) 3* 1 * ( *2 *7 2)* ) + )"*(

)" ' * +* 9 ' L0 6 L0 40@ (*"13 " ( *+ ? + (*"13 " ( @ " )2 ( )+*(" +"( ) + ) ) * )")+7

*"" *" 3 5 *+ 3 5 ) + ) )7+))"*+ ( )' 2 9 +

' 1 9+ *+ 1 ) * )+"( )+ ) + )")+7 ' (*

+ ) , 8 + @ ' () $ (* )() 1 9 *+ "1 + 1 9+

*+ : ) ' () , "1 ) + )" = && >@ * *+

2 *' ' )' * ) + )' () 1 9+ *+ 1 )

*" )2 ( * "1 ) + * " ,( ' ) 9 3 ( ) *((@

' * )' () 1 9+ *+ 1 ) * )' * *+ ? (

)+7 2 *' ' * )+ ) 2) " + ( @ )")+7

*"" *" 1 9+ *+ 1 ) * ; ) + )")+7 ' () " ' * (*"13 " ( ' ( )")+7 ' *+" ) *"" ' ()

* ) * )' * * * *+ )+ "*(" (* " + *

)"*( )" *(( ) + , ( +7)+7 *' ' * ) 7 *+ +

)"*( )" * " ' * *( "" * * * )+

) " + ) )+ * * * * )"*7 * ) + ?" *+7

=(* > *" )2 ( * "1 ) + " + *" * * )+"( "1

)" @ )1 )" *+ ) + ' * )) "* "1 ) + *

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' )"*+ ( @ +( "*(( ) + 9) + )2) + )+7 ' * ) * )+"( )+ ' ) )"*( ( @ 9 )" * " + ) + 9) ) 2)

+ )+7 @ 77 * )' () ) ), ) + + , + 7* )2 ( 1 9

*+ ? ),) ))2 ?" 1 ) (* )2 * + ' *( ) ), ) +

' @ * *+ " +"( * 1 9+ *+ : )

; (*"13 " ( ' ( )7+))"*+ ( )' 2 )")+7 5

*+ 3 5 "1 ) +

"* @ * () ) " +" +)+7 )' * ) + )' () ) ), ) +

)+ )"* * )' () + ) ), ) + ? ),) + +3+ ' *( 1 9+ *+

1 ) @ *+ * * *+ " +"( @ )+7 )' () ) ), ) + * *+

)+ ) + )")+7 ' ( ( ' *"" * ) + )")+7@ ) '

* )' () ) ), ) + * ( *+ 9 )' * ) + ' @

* *+ ' , *)+)+7 )' () ) ), ) + )+7 )' ) * ) +

" ' , * )( * * " +

2 + 7 )' () ) ), ) + ) ' + ' *( ) ), ) + *+ "*+

, )+ ) + )")+7 ' ( @ 8 ) + *, )" ) + 9

)+ ' * ) + " + + )' () ) ), ) + ' *)+ ? " * ) " )

) ' "( (

2.3. Information content of Implied Distributions

5 *+ * () ) + )+ ' * ) + " + + )' () 2 (* )() 77

) * * )' () 2 (* )() * )" ) + 9 *, 2 (* )() )

* ' ) + * +" *7 * " *( )+ ' * ) + " + +

)7 ' ' + ) ), ) +

*2* *+ $ )((* =!000> )+2 )7* ) *( )7 ' ' + @ ) 1 9+

*+ 1 ) @ ) ), ) + " + *)+ )' )(* )+ ' * ) + *,

1 9+ 3 *+ : ) 3 ; (*"13 " ( ) + )")+7

' ( 2 ( , * *+ = &&6> , *)+ )' * )' ()

2 (* )() @ 3 1 9+ *+ 31 ) ' *+ ( +7 ' * ) 40 )+ ?

) + * * " ) )2 * ) )" )' () ' ' + 9 " + ) + 9)

(18)

' ) )"*( ( 2) ) I + *2 *7 @ )' () 1 9+ 9*

)7+))"*+ ( + 7* )2 *+ )' () 1 ) ?" 1 ) + ' *(

) ), ) +

) ( @ + * 1 9+ 3 *+ : ) 3 ; (*"13 " (

) + )")+7 ' ( )7+))"*+ ( ' * )) +*( (*"13 " (

' ( )+ 3 3 *' ( )")+7 " + ( @ + * )' () ' ' +

=2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) > " + *)+ )7+))"*+ *' + )+ ' * ) +

*, ' ' + *() + ) ), ) + ' @ ) " 2

* ) + * 2 (* )() ' )( * " + ) + 9) ) +

) ), ) + + ( )+7 +

% )+, 7 =!00 > ?*' )+ 9 ) 13+ *( )' () ) ), ) + " ' *

9) *() ) ), ) + *+ @ )+ * )) + * () ) @ *(

)+ ' * ) + " + + )' () 2 (* )() *+ 1 9+ *7*)+

" + )+7 ' ' + *)( + *)( ( ' + )" * *

" 2 )+7 * ' &## &&& )+ ) ) , *)+ ' 5 *+

" + *" ?*' )+ * + E 00 @ F* *+ +M ((*

@ *+ " ' * 1M ((* ) *((@ )' ()

) ), ) + * )' * ' ) + )" )+7 2 (* )() ' )+7@ *(

1+ 9+ * )' 1 < ' @ *+ + 7 + ) ) ), ) +

* " ' * 9) 7 + ) * ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) + 9) *'

' *+ *+ *+ * 2)* ) + " + ( @ )+ ' * ) + " + +

2 (* )() ' )( ' )' () 2 (* )() *+ 1 9+ * )+7

7 ) + *+*( ) ( ) ), ) + " ' * ) + 9 * )7+

?" *+7 ) @ 5 *+ F/ @ , ( 7+ ' *(*+ )' () ) ), ) + )

*() ) ), ) + * +*,( 9 ((@ 2 + 7 ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) +

) * * , E 00@ ) 13+ *()' () ) ), ) + +

) *() + ) ), ) +@ , 9 + ) ) * ; ) 1 ) )

*() ) ), ) + 2 + , *+ ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) + (

" +" +)+7 )+ ' * ) + " + + )' () 2 (* )() @ 9 )" * " + ) + 9) )+ )+7 F ) + = && >@ )+ )"* * 2 (* )() ' )+7 '

' ()7 ( 9 )+ )" )+7 2 (* )() 9 + " ' * 5

(*"13 " ( )' () 2 (* )() ' @ )+ ' * ) + " + +

)' () 1 9+ 9* + , @ *" *(( % )+, 7 + )

(19)

+)) *2*)(*,( ' , )+7 *7*)+ ' * 1 9 + +7 1 9+

?) * ),( ? (*+* ) + )" ) + 9 @ 77 *

, "* ' * 1 * )") *+ 7 () *+ * 9)(()+7

* )7 )" *+ * ) )"*( ) 1 ) )+ *+"

) * 1* =!00 > ?*' )+ )+ ' * ) + " + + )' () ,*,)()

) ), ) + )+ )" )+7 + ) ), ) + *+ )" , *2)

) *((@ )+2 )7* 9 )' () ) ), ) + " + *)+

)+ ' * ) + *, *() "1 + ) ), ) + " + ( @

?*' )+ 9 )' () ) ), ) + " ( )+ ' * ) + )+

)" )+7 "1 )" " *+7 ' ( *)( * *

)11 )!! "1 )" )+ ? ) + *+ F* *+ 2 +' + ) +

' ' ) 3 &#& ' ) 3 &&6 * * " + *)+ *( *)( )' * )' () 2 (* )() @ 3 1 9+ *+ 31 )

"* )+7 9 )' () ) ), ) + ) *+ " ' *

) )"*( + ) ), ) + )+7 * )' ( 7 ) + *+*( ) (

77 * )' () 2 (* )() " + *)+ ' )+ ' * ) + *,

*() 2 (* )() @ ) )"*( 2 (* )() ) )(( , )" )' ()

*+ ) )"*( 1 9+ *+ 1 ) + " + *)+ + (

)+ ' * ) + *, ( * " + ) + 9) % )+, 7 =!00 >

" + ( ) * 1* *+7 "* *() ? ( 9 *

)' () ) ), ) + " + *)+ ( )+ ' * ) + *, )"

, *2) ( )+ )"* * ?) ' "* *() @ *+ *

)' () ) ), ) + 2) ()+ ' * ) + )" )+7 2 (* )()

*+ 1 9+

+ ) * ) 13 *( 1 9+ D 2) +" ' "1 ) + @ * )"1

++) *+ 9* 5 * 9 =!00!> )' *+" 2* ) *" )+

? (*)+)+7 1 9 )+ )' () ) ), ) + )+2 )7* 9 ) ' 3

)K @ ( 2 *7 @ ' * 1 ) 1@ * )+7 2 ( ' M"*(( * ) "*+ ? (*)+

2* )* ) + )+ ) 13+ *( 1 9+ "* ++) E 5 * 9 * +(

)+ )+ 1 9+ ) ), ) +@ ' 2 ( ,

*1 ) *+ 5 * *+ =!000> 9 )" *(( 9 * )( " ' ) 13+ *(

1 9+ *+ + ( + *+ * )" (* ) + )")+7 ' ( * *

(20)

)+ ) ) *)( * )+7 * * " 2 )+7 * &#6 3 &&6 *+

)+"( )+7 *(( )1 *+ ' * )) 2 000 + ( )+7 "1 *+ E

00 )+ ? " ' 1 9+ *" * *+ *2 *7 2*(

, *)+ 9 1( 1 9+ ' * ( ? (*+* 2* )*,( @ )+"( )+7

)' () 2 (* )() @ * )+7 2 ( ' @ , *@ ) ' ( 2 *7 *+ M"*(( * ) *

" + " *+ "*(" (* ' *" 9 1 )+*(( 9 1( " 3 " ) +*(

7 ) + * "*(" (* + * ' * 1 ) 1@ ' * *

, *@ )7+))"*+ ( * " ) 13+ *( + ) 1 9+ "1 9) )7

, * + *2 ' + 7* )2 ( 1 9 )' () ) ), ) + ")*(( 9 +

' * 1 2 (* )() ) )7 9 + )' () ) ), ) + )+ ? ) +

) + 7* )2 ( 1 9 ( @ (* 7 ' * 1 2*( ' ' *1 1 9 + 7* )2 @

9 )( )7 * )+7 2 ( ' ' *1 1 9 ' ))2 ( 7 @ M"*((

2 ( ' * ) @ 9 )" " ( )+ ))2 ( , + * * ' * 1 < "*

)" ) " ) +@ + " (* 9) ) 13+ *( 1 9

+ ) " + +*7+ *( =!00!> )+2 )7* 9 )' ()

,*,)() + )) 2) +,)* "* *() ,*,)() + ))

) + * *" @ ' 9 )" * * *' )" *+ + )

+ +3 * *' )"@ )' * )' () ) ), ) + ) + )+ E 00 *+

((* M )) + ' &#6 !00 ( " * *" *

+ *() * *" @ ' *( +2 * )*+ *" @ 9 3

( 7+ ' *(' )? *+ 3 ()+ + * * *' )" ' *

"( * ( ) + +3 * *' )"@ , + + ' + *+

* )* "* ) ), ) + + ( )+7 * ? ) )

' *)+ " +"( ) + ) * )' () ) ), ) + 2) +( ,)*

)+ ' * ) + *, ' * 1 +*' )" *( ' * )' ()

2 (* )()) ( " ' * "1 *+ 2) *"" * "*

@ )+7 )' () ) ), ) + * +( "* 9 ( ( *

2 *" ) + *+ 9 +7 " +"( ) + *, )" , *2)

5 ) + )+ ' * ) + " + + )' () ) ), ) + )+ )"*

* )' () 1 9+ *+ 1 ) *2 * )" ) + 9 +

1 9+ *+ 1 ) +*7+ *( =!00!> + * )' () ) ), ) +

" + *)+ )7+))"*+ )+ ' * ) + *, ) ), ) +@ , * ,)* *+

"*++ , * +( "* + ) ), ) + ) * 1*

(21)

=!00 >+ * 2 + 7 + ) )' () + ) )"*( )7 ' ' +

" + *)+ ( )+ ' * ) +@ ?) ' "* *() , 9 + *

)' () ) ), ) + *+ 2 (* )() *+ 1 9+

)" ) + 9 * 9 ),( ? (*+* ) + 9 )" * "( ( (*

*" I ) + * * )+ *+" *+ ' * 1

* )") *+ * 9)(()+7 * )7 )" @ ! 5 * 1 * )") *+ *2 + *() )" ? " * ) + @ 9 )" ( " ' * *+ ?*' ( ' * 1 " * ' * ( )+ )7 + 7* )2 )' () 1 9+ @ , "* ' * 1

* )") *+ * ? " )+7 ' * 1 " + )+ 9+

5 2 @ ) ' * )' () ) ), ) + ( " ' * "1 *+

' * 1 * )") *+ A * *+ *() )" )" ) + )" , *2)

* ),)() "()+ * (* ' * 1 ) 1@ 9 )" ++)

*+ 5 * 9 =!00!> + )7+))"*+ ( * " )' () + ) ), ) +

"1 9) )7 , * + *2 ' + 7* )2 ( 1 9 )' ()

) ), ) + *+ "1 9) ( 9 , *

+ @ ) " +" +)+7 )+ ' * ) + " + + ' ()

) ), ) + )+ )"* * )' () ) ), ) + )' () ' ' + " + *)+

' )+ ' * ) + *, )" , *2) @ , )+ ' * ) + ) *((

,)* *+ ?*77 * )' *+" * ' * 1 "1 @ )+7 )' ()

) ), ) + * * ' * 1 )" )" ' * ( * * )+7

") ) + ' * , "* )' () ) ), ) + 2) ?*77 * *+

2 *" )+ ' * ) + *, ' * 1 ? " * ) + @ ) ' * , )*,( ,

*7*)+ ' * 1 9 + )' () ) ), ) + ? ),) )7 =+ 7* )2

))2 > 1 9+

(22)

3. OPTION PRICING THEORY

3.1. Stock Price Behaviour

) 7 + *(( * ' * " * )" " , )+ ' 2 ' + *

+ +3 )2) + 3 * )+7 "1 ) 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + 7 ' )"

9+)*+ ' ) + ' ( " + *)+ 9 " ' + + @ ? " + *+

2 (* )() =. (( !000D!! > "" )+7 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) +@

" *+7 )+ "1 )" )+7 * )' ) ) z

S t S

S = ∆ + ∆

∆ µ σ @

9 N "1 )" @ µN ? " +@

σ =2 (* )() @ t z= ∆

∆ ε @ 9 ε) * *+ ' *9)+7 ' + ' *(

) ), ) +@φ =0@ >

)7 )(( * 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + )' (* * (( 9 , *

"1 +))*(2*( "1 ) 00@ ? " + )+ )' (* ) + ) 0H

* *+ "1 )" 2 (* )() ) !0H . ((=!000D!! > * + @ * 9 +

2 (* )() 8 *( K 8 * ) + +"* ' 8 * ) + ! )

+"* 2 ) + 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + ) )(( * * * + ()+ )+

)7

(23)

' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + )' (* "1 )" , *2) t

S S = ∆

∆ µ

∆ →

=- *+ 4> dSSdt dt

S dS

*+ "1 )" * ' * ) = )' > ( 8 *(

T

T S e

S = 0 µ

) "*+ , + ' 8 * ) + @ "1 )" 7 9 * * * " + )+ (

" ' + * µ@ 9 + 2 (* )() "1 ) K "1 )" " *+7

"*+ , *( ? * * (* )2 " + "1 )" ) "*+ , + , )2) )+7 8 * ) + , "1 )" @

t S t

S = ∆ − ∆

∆ µ σε

(24)

+ 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + ' (@ , ? " +@ µ@ *+

2 (* )() @ σ@ * * ' " + *+ ' 8 * ) + 6 9 "*+ * µ∆ )

? " + 2 )' ∆ *+ @ , "* ε ) * *+ ' *9)+7 '

+ ' *( ) ), ) +@ σε ∆t ) +( " ' + + )+"( )+7 " * )" "

) ' *+ * +@ ∆ M @ ) + ' *(( ) ), 9) ' *+ µ∆ *+

*+ * 2)* ) +σ ∆t * ? )+ 8 * ) +

) ,

(

~ t t

S

S ∆ ∆

∆ φ µ σ

< ( ' ' * = & > "*+ , 2 * ) " , )+

"1 )" , @ ) 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) +@ + +* *( ( 7* ) '

"1 )" (( 9 7 + *() % ) + " *+ ) + ' *((

) ), ' @ " *+7 )+ )+7 )'

dz dt S

d = µ−σ +σ

ln 22

) ' *+ *

=&> STS φ µ−σ TT

~ 2 ln

ln 0 2

*+ ) )' ()) 8 * ) + 0@ 9)+7 * ) + ' *((

) ), @

= 0> ST φ S + µ−σ TT ln 2

~

ln 0 2 . ((=!000D!- >

+* *(( 7* ) ' * 2* )*,( ) + ' *(( ) ), @ + 2* )*,( ) (

) ( 7+ ' *(( ) ), "* 8 * ) + 0 9 * ) + ' *((

) ), @ + "1 )" * )' ' , ( 7+ ' *(( ) ),

' ) ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) + 9 1+ 9 * ) "*+ *1 *+

2*( , 9 + K *+ )+ )+) = @ 7 @ ? *+ ,)+ )+ &# D!0 3!04 *+

(25)

' ) *+ 5 " !000> ' @ ' 8 * ) + 0 *+ )

( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) +@ 9 1+ 9 * ? " 2*( @ @ )

= > E

( )

ST =S0eµT

' )+*( * "1 )" ) ), ) + )' () ,*,)()) "1 )"

+ )+7 * " *)+ ( 2 ( * ' * ) )7 ! )(( * ,*,)()

) ), ) + "1 )" * ' )+*( * ) ), ) + )+ )7 ! ) "*(" (*

9) )+))*( "1 )" 00@ 2 (* )() !0H @ )+ * H @ )'

' * ) *

,*,)() ) ), ) + ' )+*( * "1 )"

' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + ) +( + 77 ) + "1 )" , *2)

) ,( ' * )" , "* * ' ) + , )+ ' ( * ' *

2 (* )() + ) " + *+ 7 ' * ) *+ ) + *+ *

+ * + ' *(( ) ), @ 9 )" , * 2) + ( + ) 7)2 *

) * + ' + + "*(( 2 (* )() ' )(

"1 )" , *2) ' ( * ' ( )+2 (2)+7 ; ' *+ ' ( 9) " * )" 2 (* )() F ' ' () )+ ) + )")+7 ' ( " *

(26)

F ' 5 ( , ?@ *+ ,)+ )+ = & &> *+ F ' ) ) + 5 (, 5 + = & 6> " * )" 2 (* )() ' () ) "

?*' ( )+ * , . ((*+ % ) = &# >

3.2. Risk-neutral valuation

+ * ) 13+ *( 9 ( *(( )+ )2) *( * ) 13+ *(@ *+ +

8 ) " ' + * ) + ) 1 , * ' @ ? " + + *((

)+2 ' + 8 *( ) 13 )+ * *+ 2*( *+ * ) )

? " )" ) " + * ) 13 * ? " "1 )" @

= >@ * )' "*+ , ? * (( 9)+7@ =. ((!000D!0 >

= !> E

( )

ST =S0erT

+ ) * 9 *2 * ) * ) + 9 * "1 ) " + ( * )+7 * L!0 *+

* * + ) = * ' + > )" "1 "*+ , ) L!- L

+ )7 -@ ) * ) + ) )(( * 9) * + 3 ,)+ ' )*( @ 9 )" ) * )' ()) ' ( "1 )" , *2) "" )+7 8 * ) + !@

? " + + "1 ( , 8 *( ) 13 )+ * = * H

" + )+ " ' + )+7>@ ? " "1 )" * ' + @ = >@ )

= ->

( )

$20 12 $20.08

05 1 . 0

1 = e ×

S E

+ )+ ' )*(

(27)

* () ' + ) + @ * ' + @ "1 )" "*+ , ) L!- L *+

+ 9 9 1+ 9 * ? " 2*( "1 * ' + ) L!0 0# 9

9 "*+ "*(" (* ) 13+ *( ,*,)()) 3 *+ 9+3' 2 ' + I

)+ * ) 13+ *( ,*,)() *+ 3' 2 ' + ? " )" *

"1 ) @ )' ( @ ,*,)() 9 )7 *2 *7 ),( " '

*+ )+ ) 13+ *(9 ( ) ' 8 *( 8 * ) + ! =. ((!000D!06> ?*' (

"*(" (* ) + ,*,)()) ) + , ( 9

= 4>

= >

= 6>

9 9 "*+ ) 13+ *( ,*,)()) 2*( *+ ) + + "1

+ ) * ) * ) +@ 9 9 *2 * *+ "*(( ) + 9) )1 )"

L! *+ ' + ' * ) ) + 2*( * )+*(+ * + )+

)7 - + + ' + @ "*(( ) + * * 0 -& = ) ) 2

*' * ,*,)() * "1 ' 2)+7 > ,*,)() , )+7 9 L! *+

* 0 4#6 =N 30 -&> ,*,)() , )+7 9 K ? " 2*(

) + ) @

= > 0.5139×2+0.4861×0=1.0278

, *)+ ) 13+ *(2*( ) + * ? " 2*( (

, ) " + )+7 ) 13 )+ * ) + ) * 9

= #> 1.0278 12 1.0235

005 1 .

0 × =

e

)+7 ,)+ ' )*( @ 9 , *)+ ,*,)()) "1 )" + )+7 * (* 7

2* ) ( 2 ( " @ + 3 ,)+ ' )*( ) ? ' ( )' ())

' ( "1 )" , *2) *+ )+7 ) 9 , *)+ ,*,)()) +(

9 " ' @ 9 )" * ,2) ( )+* 8 * 9 + 9 * ' *+

' @ ,*,)() + ) +" ) + , " ' ' *+ ' *"" *

*+ ' ,( ' *+ ' ( 7+ ' *( + ) +" ) + ) + ) )

(28)

) 13+ *( ,*,)() + ) @ *+ ) )+ )"* ,*,)() "1 )" + )+7 * ' " *)+ ( 2 (

" *(( @ )+ 2*( *+ ) +@ 9 + *2 " + " 9 (

,)+ ' )*( % + +( * )* ) 13+ *( ,*,)() + ) @

*, 9 )" ) ) " ' *)( (* )+ " * - - !

3.3. The Black-Scholes Model

(*"13 " ( 5 (@ )2 , (*"1 *+ " ( = & -> ? *+ , 5 + = & ->@ * (* * ' *; ( )+ 2 ( ' + ' + )+*+")*(

)2* )2 ' * 1 ,)+ )+ = &&4> *) ' (, )+7 + '

"" (' ( )+ ")*( ") +" *+ * 2 + ' 9) (

' (* 7 ' *+ ) ) *( * 7 + *(( *"" * *

, +" ' * 1 ' (@ 9 )" *( +* )2 ' ( * *7*)+ = )11)+ +

!00 D&> )' *+" ) ' (9* " 7+) *(( 2 )+ *"* ' )"

9 ( )+ && @ 9 + , ( )K )+ " + ' )" 9* *9* 5 +

" ( *+ , 5 + = . ((!000>

3.3.1. Derivation of the model

(*"13 " ( ) +3 )")+7 ' ( ) )2 )+7 (*"13 " ( 3 5 + ) + )*( 8 * ) +@ 9 )" ) *+ 8 * ) + * 2 )2* )2 + + +3

)2) + * )+7 "1 ' * ) )+ ()( + 3* ,) *7

* ' ) + ) ,* + *+ * ' ) + ) *( ' * 1 " + )) + *+ *

),)() " * * ) 1( )) + "1 *+ ) + ) 1( ()

"*+ , " * , "* , @ "1 *+ ) + )" @ * + + +

*' " +" *)+ @ "1 )" ' 2 ' + + * )

)' @ )" * "*(( = > ) + ) " ( ))2 ( =+ 7* )2 ( > " (*

9) "1 )" @ ) ) ),( " * * ) 1( () ) + *+

* "1@ , "* ( 7*)+ )+ "1 ) *(9* , *+ 8 *(7*)+ ( )+

) + )) + ) + + ))2) "1 )" ) + " + *+ 2 )'

*+ ) () ) ) 1( +( * 2 ) )' *+ )

' , " + *+ ( ,*(*+" ' *)+ ) 1( ( +7 ) @ , )+7

(29)

* )' ) ' ) ( ) 13 )+ * )+ * ) + 3

* ,) *7 * ' ) + =. ((!000D!!4>

. ((=!000D!4 > * () * ' ) + , )+ (*"13 " ( 35 + ) + )*( 8 * ) + * (( 9)+7D

"1 )" (( 9 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) +

! (()+7 " )) 9) (( " ) ' )

- * + *+ *" ) + " *? (( " )) * " ( )2) ),(

4 * + )2) + )+7 () )2* )2

* + * ,) *7 +))

6 " ) * )+7 ) " + )+

) 13 * )+ ) " + *+ *+ *' *((' * ))

+ *+ )2* ) + (*"13 " ( 35 + ) + )*( 8 * ) + 9

*2 " +" + * + , *2) + ( )+7 "1 )" + )

' () ) * ' * "1 )" (( 9 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) +@ * 9+ )+ 8 * ) + *+ *7*)+ )+ 8 * ) + & , ( 9

= &> ∆SStSz

) 9 = . ((!000D!46 ?*' ( > * ) ) * )" * )2* )2 +

@ + )+7 < ( ' ' * 9 )+ * " (( 9 , )2* )2 )

z S S t f S S

f t

S f S

f f

∂ + ∂

∂ ∆ + ∂

∂ +∂

= ∂

∆ µ 2 2σ2 2 σ

2 1

9 ∆ *+ ∆ * " *+7 "1 )" *+ )2* )2 )" 2 2 )' ∆ @ " )2 (

% ) + " , )+ *+ ) *' I ) ' *+ * ∆K )+ , 8 * ) +

) *' ) *" "*+ , ()' )+* +" *)+ , " * )+7 * () " + *)+)+7

3 )2* )2

(30)

*+ S f

∂ + ∂ *

% + ) 1)+ () ) " * @ + 2*( () @Π@ )

=! > S

S f f

∂ +∂

= Π

*+ " *+7 )+ 2*( () @∆Π@ )+7 * ' *(()+ 2*( )' @

∆ @ )

=!!> S

S f f

∂ + ∂

=

∆Π

% + ∆ *+ ∆ )+ 8 * ) + !! * (*" 9) 8 * ) + & *+ !0 + 8 * ) + "*+ , ? * (( 9

=!-> S t

S f t

f

∂ + ∂

= ∂

∆Π 2 2 2 2

2

1 σ

9 "*+ @ 8 * ) + !- + " + *)+ " * )" " ∆ "*

) () ' , ) 1( )+7 )' ∆ *+ * () ) ) 1( @

) ' ) ( ?*" ( *' ) 13 + * ) 13 " ))

) ) + )+ 8 * ) + !4 ) 9 + @ * ,) *7 " ( ' *1

) 13 ) , (()+7 " ) M () 9) ' *(( + *+ )+7

" , )7 ) ( )+7 " ) M () =. ((!000D!4 >

=!4> ∆Π=rΠ∆t@

9 ) ) 13 )+ * , ) )+7 ∆Π*+ Π)+ 8 * ) + !4 9)

8 * ) + !- *+ ! ) (

=! > S t

S f f r t S S

f t

f

− ∂

=

∂ ∆ + ∂

2 2

2 2

2

1 σ @

9 )" )' ()) (*"13 " ( 35 + ) + )*( 8 * ) + + , ( 9

(31)

=!6> rf S S f S

rS f t

f =

∂ + ∂

∂ + ∂

2 2 2 2

2 1σ σ

( ) + (*"13 " ( 35 + ) + )*( 8 * ) + "*+ , + *((

1)+ ) + )2* )2 9) * *+ + ( )+7 2* )*,( ( ) +

8 * ) + + , + * " + )) + @ 9 )" )+ *+7

)2* )2 )" ' () 9) )+ *1 + * *+ "*(( ) + ?*' ( @ 1 , + * " + )) + * ' * ) *+ ) + )

=! > N ' *?= G C @ 0>

*' (*"13 " ( ) + )")+7 ' ( 9* 2 ( @ 9 + (*"1 *+

" ( = & -> + ( ) + *+ ) + (*"13 " ( 35 +

) + )*( 8 * ) + + * , + * " + )) + *+

"*(( ) + ) + )*( 8 * ) + )' ()) )' )(* ' * * 3

*+ 8 * ) + )+ )" *+ " ( ) ( ) + ,

" )(( = &6-> (2 ) + )*( 8 * ) + *+ *+ "*((

) + @ ( ) + 9 )" * ) (*"13 " ( 35 + ) + )*(

8 * ) + * + , ( 9 * (*"13 " ( ) + )")+7

' (* *+ "*(( ) +

=!#> c=S0N(d1)−XerTN(d2)

=!&> p= XerTN(−d2)−S0N(−d1)

9

T

T X r

S

d σ

+σ +

=ln 0 22

1

*+

T d

d2 = 1−σ

(32)

3.3.2. Derivation of the model using risk-neutral valuation

? *+ = & 6> 9 ) 2 * (*"13 " ( ' (* "*+ ,

*( )2 )+7 ) 13+ *( 2*( * ) + + ) ) *

"1 )" (( 9 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) +@ ' 9 )" (( 9 *

"1 )" @ *+ , "* * @ *( ) 1 + *( ,*,)() + ) +" ) +@ ) ( 7+ ' *(( ) ),

) )+ * * ,*,)() + ) +" ) + @ + ) (( 9 *

? " 2*( * *+ "*(( ) + * ' * ) 8 *( )+ 7 *(

9 ' " "1 )" ?" )1 )" )' ,*,)() )

(* ) + ) + )+ (( 9)+7

=-0>

[ (

) ]

=

X

T X S X g S dS

S

Ê max ,0 ( ) ( )

(2)+7 )+ 7 *( + )+ )7 3 *+ ) 8 * ) + -0 ? *+

= & 6> , *)+ ) 1 (@ 9 )" 2 * ) "1 )" @ @ )

( 7+ ' *(( ) ), *+ *+ * 2)* ) + ) σ +

=- > @

9 ) " ' (* )2 ,*,)() ) ), ) + *+ *+ !* 2

*' * + )+ 8 * ) + !&

9 1+ 9@ + 2*( *+ ) + ) ) ? " 2*( ) " + *

) 13 )+ * $ *( * *+ "*(( ) +@ "@ "*+ ,

? *

=-!>

+ ) 13+ *( 9 ( ? " 2*( * "1 * ' * ) @ = > @

8 *( 0 = 8 * ) + !> % + 1 ( ? *+ = & 6> )

* () 8 * ) + -!@ 2*( *+ "*(( ) +@ "@ "*+ ,

? *

(33)

=-->

=-4>

*+ * "*+ , +@ 8 * ) + -4 ) 2 *' * ' ( "*((

) + @ *( * + )+ 8 * ) + !# ' )+ 8 * ) + -- "*+ ,

)+ * (( 9)+7D + ,*,)() * ) + 9)((,

? ") )+ ) 13+ *(9 ( *+ ) ? " 2*( "1

) ) ?" )1 )" *+ ) K 9) =. ((D! >

* , + * ' ( *+ 8 * ) + -4 * * ' )+7 * "1

)" ) ( 7+ ' *(( ) ), ) + ( @ + ) + )"

7)2 + , ' (* ,)* *+ ) ' ' * 1 )" 2

*' ' ( ) , *)+ 2*( )' () 2 (* )() @ + ) )")+7

"*+ , , 2 * * 2 (* )() ' )( @ 9 )" ) ) " ' *)( )+

" * - 4

,*,)() + ) +" ) + "1 )" ) + +3+ ' *(@ + 9 ;

*2 ,*,)() + ) +" ) + * *+ )+ )+ 8 * ) + -0

" *(( ,*,)() + ) +" ) + "1 )" @ 7= >@ ) '

)' *+ * *' * " )+7 2*( *+ ) + )+ ) 13+ *(

2*( * ) + ' (

3.3.3. Critique against the model

"" )+7 ' ) )"*( ) = * &&6>@ )"*( )" 5

*+ 5 ) + 7)2 + , (*"13 " ( ' ( + ) ( ) '

)" , 2 )+ ' * 1 ")*(( 5 *+ 3 5 ) +

)" * *2)( ,)*

(34)

3.4. Volatility

$ (* )() @σ@ ) + " ")*( * *' + , (*"13 " ( ' (

2*( ) + ' * +" *)+ " +" +)+7 + 2)

, "1 ) *( +( * *' 9 )" "*+ + , * )( , 2 *+

' , )' * @ ?*' ( ' ) )"*( * * ) " ( '

' * 1 )" ) ' * 1 )' () 2 (* )() ) + @ + ' ) * )2

' ' , "1 )" 2 (* )() ) *(( ' 9 , 9 +

!0H *+ 40H @ + )+7 + * ) 1)+ * " ' *+ =. ((!000D!4 >

F*"19 *+ ,)+ )+ = && > * * O.) )"*(( ' * 2 (* )() 2* ) )7+))"*+ ( 2 ) + )' )+ 2*( I*+ " + ) "*+ , *

)" , 8 + )' () 2 (* )() P

3.4.1. Volatility smile

(*"13 " ( ' ( * ' 2 (* )() , " + *+ 7 *((

)1)+7 )" ) ) " + ) + 9) ) * * "1 )" (( 9 7 ' )" 9+)*+ ' ) + *+ " *+7 * ( 7+ ' *(( ) ), 2) + ( + ) * ' ) + ) I. (( = &&-> *+ * +, 7 = &&4> +

* "1 + ? ),) + +3+ ' *( 1 9+ *+ 1 )

+ +3+ ' *()) ) ), ) + "* 2 (* )() ' )( @ ' *+)+7 * )' ()

2 (* )()) 3 3 3 3' + *+ 3)+3 3' + ) + )

' * 3 3' + ) + $ (* )() ' )( "*+ , )(( * ,

"*(" (* )+7 )' () 2 (* )()) ) + )1)+7 )" *+ + ( )+7

' * * 7 * + ?*' ( * 2 (* )() ' )( ) + )+ )7 4 , ( 9

(35)

! + ?*' ( 2 (* )() ' )(

' 2 (* )() ' )( *(( * ")*( ' 2 (* )() ' )( @

9 )' () 2 (* )() ) ( 9 5 ) + ) )+7 9* , @ ( 9

*+ )7 @ )1)+7 )" "* ) + 9) ? ' )1 )" * 2*(

(* )2 ( )7 , )+7 )7 2 (* )() ) + @ *+ 5 ) + @

) 1)+ ' )( )' () * ' * 1 * ? " ? ' ' 2 ' +

, ' ,*,( *+ 9 * 9 ( , )" + ,* ) ( 7+ ' *(

) ), ) + ) )' () ) ), ) + ? ),) ' 1 ) @ ) * *)( *+

' *1 @ *+ ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) +@ ' *+)+7 * , ' *(( *+

(* 7 )" " *+7 * ' ,*,( *+ ' ) ' " *+7 * ( ()1 ( *+

9) ( 7+ ' *( ) ), ) + =. ((!000D4- >

8 ) ) + *(( ? ),) *+ ")*( "* 2 (* )() ' )( @ "*((

2 (* )() 1 9 ' *+ * 2 (* )() ) (* )2 ( )7 ) + 9)

( 9 )1)+7 )" " * )+7 7 * ) + ( * )1)+7 )" )+" * I ) )

+ )+ )7 )' () ) ), ) + " + ) + 9) 2 (* )() 1 9

) ' 9 * + 7* )2 ( 1 9 *+ * )7 1 ) *+ ( 7+ ' *(

) ), ) + ,)+ )+ = &&4D > 7)2 O" * 3 3 ,)*O * + ),(

? (*+* ) + ) + ' + + ) * ) * * * * * " *

(36)

)' )(* " , &# " ( * + *7*)+ *+ 2*( 5

=*+ , "* 3"*((3 * ) *( 5 "*((> ) + 2 )7 (* )2 5 ) + ' 8 ) 2*() ? (*+* ) +@ , "* (*"13 " ( ' ( ) ( * ) *" 9 (( + )( ' ) &#0< = ,)+ )+ &&4>

" + ?*' ( 2 (* )() 1 9

3.5. Skewness- and Kurtosis-Adjusted Black-Scholes Model

* *+ = &&6> 77 1 9+ *+ 1 ) "1 +

) ), ) + * * )' * " 2 (* )() ' )( *+ 2 ( *+ ? +

(*"13 " ( ' (@ 9 )" )+" * 9) + +3+ ' *())

+ ) ), ) + ) ' (* " + ) (*"13 " ( ) + )")+7

' (* *+ * ; ' + ' + +3+ ' *( 1 9+ *+ 1 )

; ' + ' 1 9+ *+ 1 ) * ,* + * *' 3 * ()

) ? *+ ) + *+ * ) + ' *( + ) +" ) + * *+

+"* *' 3 * () ) ? *+ ) + * +( )

' ' + * )+"( *+ * +"* ) 13+ *( + ) +" ) +@ 7Q=K>@

"*+ , ? )+ (( 9)+7 ' D

(37)

=- > = + − + − ( −6 +3)

! 4 ) 3 3

! ( 1 3 ) ( ) (

* z n z 3 z3 z 4 z4 z2

g µ µ

@

9 T

T r

S

z St

σ

σ /2) (

) /

ln( 0 − − 2

=

*+ +=K>@ µ- *+ µ4 * *+ * + ' *( + ) +" ) +@ 1 9+ *+

1 ) " )2 ( 8 * ) + - )' ()) *+ * + ' *( + )

+" ) + * 1 9+ @ µ-@ 8 *( 0 *+ 1 ) @ µ4@ 8 *( - )+7 +"* + ) +" ) + * *+ = &&6> )2 * ?)' * ' (*@ + )+ 8 * ) + -6@ 9 )" "*+ , 2*( *+ "*((

) + 1 9+ 3 *+ 1 ) * ; ) + )")+7 ' (*

*+ "*(( ) + ) (( 9)+7D

=-6> CGC =CBS3Q3 +(µ4 −3)Q4@

9 Q St T

[ (

T d

)

n

( )

d 2TN

( )

d

]

3 2

! 3

1 σ σ − −σ

= @

( )

( ) ( ) ( )

[

d T d T nd T N d

]

T S

Q4 t 2 1 3 3 3/2

! 4

1 σ − − σ −σ −σ

= @

σ

σ T

r K

d ln(S0 / ) + ( + 2 /2)

=

' R- *+ R4' * " + +3+ ' *( 1 9+ *+ 1 )

+ ) + )" *+ " * *( )(( * )+ )7 , ( 9

( , + @ * 9 + ) 13+ *( ) ), ) + ) ( 7+ ' *( =)

1 9+ N0 *+ 1 ) N-> 1 9+ 3 *+ : ) 3* ; (*"13 " (

' ( ) ( 2 *' ( * )7)+*( (*"13 " ( ' (=" N

" > )7 6 )(( * )" * ; ' + + +3+ ' *()) = *

*+ &&6D &>

(38)

# N 00@σN 0 !@ N 0 0 @ N * @µ-N 30 @µ4N -

8 * ) + -6 "*+ , 2*( *+ ) + * 9 (( ) "*+ ,

+ , * ( )+7 3"*((3 * ) (* ) + ) , 9 + *+ "*(( ) +

9 )" ' ( )+ * ) + 3* ,) *7 * ' ) + )+7 3"*((3

* ) * 1 9+ *+ 1 ) " " )" * ) + "*+ , + * (( 9 D= *2* *+ $ )((* !000D44>

=- > pGC =cGCSt +KerT

2 + 7 @ + ) (*"13 " ( ' ( 1 9+ *+ : )

; (*"13 " ( ' ( "*+ , )+2 * )' () 2 (* )()

" ( , ) " ( "*(" (* @ ' * ?)' * ) + +" ) + )' () 2 (* )() "*+ , )2 *2* *+ $ )((* =!000> )2 *+ * ?)' * ) +

+" ) + )' () 2 (* )() 9) (( 9)+7 )+ * *' D 2 (* )() @ σ@

(39)

) + ' + + @ ?@ )' ' * ) @ @ 1 9+ @ µ- *+ 1 ) @ µ4

* ?)' * ) + +" ) + )' () 2 (* )() @σ@ ) (( 9)+7D

=-#>

8 * ) + -# "*+ , 2) *(( )(( * 9 ' " 1 9+ *+ 1 )

* " )' () 2 (* )() *+ 9 2 (* )() ' )( " *+7 9 +

1 9+ 1 ) " *+7 )+7 ) * ?)' * ) +@ *2* *+ $ )((*

=!000> + * ) + * 2 (* )() ' )( * " + ) + 9)

) + + ) ), ) + ?*' ( ))2 ?" )2 1 ) @ 9 )"

' *+ ) ), ) + 9) O * *)( O@ ) " + ) + 9) ' ' )" 2 (* )() ' )(

= )7 -> " 1 ) * ' "( )+2 )7* )+ )7 % +

1 ) *( + ( * ' ' )" 2 (* )() ' )( @ 1 9+ " * 1 9

2 (* )() ' )( @ 2 (* )() 1 9 ))2 =+ 7* )2 > 1 9+ +

) ), ) + ) " + ) + 9) 2 (* )() 1 9@ ' *+)+7 * )' () 2 (* )() ) * ' + + )+" * = " * >@ * )(( * )+ )7 #

$ N 00@σ N 0 !@ N 0 0 @ N * *+ µ3 = 0.

(40)

% N 00@σ N 0 !@ N 0 0 @ N * *+ µ4N -

(41)

4. IMPLIED DISTRIBUTION

* () ) " @ 9 + ) 13+ *( 2*( * ) + ) 2*( ) +

' )' *+ )+7 1+ 9 ) * )* ,*,)() + )

+" ) + * ' *+ 9* , *)+ ) + ) +" ) + )' *

2 (* )() @ )' )(* ( ,*,)() ) ), ) + "1 ' * 1 + "*+

, )' * ' ) )"*( )' ) ,( ' 9) ) ' ) *

,*,)() ) ), ) + ,* + * )" , *2) ( " * *+

+ @ *( ) ' * , * ? ' 2 + * + + )+

) )"*( " 2 + 7 ) ) ,2) * * ),( F*"19 *+

,)+ )+= &&6> *1 * 7 ?*' ( *, ),)() ? ' 2 + D

O "1 ' * 1 " * " , &# (( 9)+7 *+ * * * )7' @

* ' * "1 ' * 1 + * ( 7+ ' *(( ) ), 9) *+

*++ *() 2 (* )() !0H =+ * ) ) )"*( *() * ) +> + " , &@ &# @

9 ' + E 00 ((!& " + + ( 7+ ' *( ) @

) ) * 3! *+ * 2)* ) + 2 + 9) ,*,)() 03 60@ 9 )" ) 2) *((

)' ),( ) " , &# * +)8 * ) + ( 7+ ' *( )

9 * (* @ + " , -@ &#&@ E 00 )+ ? ((*, 6 " + @ * 3

*+ * 2)* ) + 2 + + ' *)+ *)+ ) @ ) * *

,*,)() 0 000000! *+ ( "" +( +" )+ 4 6 * O

=F*"19 *+ ,)+ )+ = &&6>D 6 3 6 !>

( +* )2 ( ,*,)() ) ), ) + +" ) + "*+ , ) " ( )' () '

) + ' * 1 ) ' *+ * ) + * * "*+ , , *)+ ) 3

"*(( ) 13+ *( ) ), ) + )' () ) ), ) + ) ,2) @ *

)' () ) ), ) + ) + + " * )( *' * *() ) ), ) +

' () ) ), ) + ) ( , "* ) "*+ , 7* * ' * 1

* )") *+ " + + "* )" + ( )+7@ * ( * ) )

9* ( 1)+7 )' * )+ " + * ,*,)() ) ), ) + )' *

' ) )"*( )" = +*7+ @ + @ . 7 *+ ' 1)+ !00!D!>

? " * )+ " ' ' )2 )' () ) ), ) +

(42)

4.1. Shimko's Method

+ ) * ( + *+ )K +, 7 = & #> + ) *@ *

) 13+ *( ,*,)() ) ), ) + +" ) + "*+ , , *)+ , "*(" (* )+7

" + )2* )2 *" ) + 9) " ) )1)+7 )" +

(2 + ) ) ), ) +@ * * ( " + *)+ 2*( *+ ) +

9) *' ' * ) @ *' + ( )+7 * *+ )1 )" ' 0

)+ )+)

+ +* ( @ )+ *() 9 , 2 ' * 1 2*( +( * 8 ) +* 9

*+7 @ 9 )" )+) ( ) + 2 + "( ' K )+ )+) *+7 )' 1

= &&-> + * 9* +< *+ )K +, 7 < ) *@ 9 )" +

+ + )1 )" " + )+ ' )' 1 77 ) )+7 * ' " 2

2 (* )() ' )( ( @ )+ , *)+ )+ (* 2 (* )() 2*(

2 )1 )" +@ )+7 (*"13 " ( ' (*@ ) + )" " ( , + * * " + )+ +" ) + )1 )" )+*(( @ *1)+7 " +

)2* )2 ) + )" +" ) +@ )' () ) 13+ *( ) ), ) +

, 9 + ( 9 *+ )7 )1 )" ) * (

,)+ )+ = &&4> " ' ' + )' 1 < ' , )+7 * )* )+ * 9* *

) ( ( 7+ ' *( ) 13+ *( ,*,)() ) ), ) + 9 + 2 (* )()

' )( ) (*

4.2. Corrado and Su Method

+ ) < 1 9+ *+ 1 ) )+ E 00 )+ ? + )' () ,

) + )" < * *+ = &&6> )2 1 9+ 3 *+ : ) 3* ; (*"13 " ( ' ( = " * ! )2* ) +> *+ ' *?)' '

()1 () ' )' (*+ )' * )' () 32 (* )() @ 3 1 9+ *+ 3

1 ) 2)* ' ( )' * ) + ' * *+ +

* ' *+ "))" ) ), ) + , )+ ) 13+ *( + ) +" ) +@ ) ;

)' * *+ * 2)* ) +@ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) ) ), ) +

(43)

* *' * , *)+ , ' )+)' ) )+7 (( 9)+7 ' 8 * 9)

" @ : *+ : D

=-&>

2*( @ : *+ : + )' * )' ()

2 (* )() @ )' () 1 9+ *+ )' () 1 ) @ " )2 ( = * *+

&&6D #4 >

(44)

5. HYPOTHESES

+ " +" + * + )+ ' * ) + " + + )' ()

) ), ) + )+ " )" ) ), ) + + ) @

)+ ' * ) + " + + *" *(( ' *+ )" ) + 9 *+ ) )

)+2 )7* ) )' () ) ), ) + )" * ) ), ) +

" *( ) ), ) + * + " ' * *" @ , )' () ' ' +

=2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) >* * ? )' () ) ), ) +

@ )+ * " ' * )+7 )' () *+ *()K ) ), ) + 9 " ' *

' ' + ) ), ) + I )' () 3 2 *()K 2 (* )() @ )' () 3 2

*()K 1 9+ *+ )' () 3 2 *()K 1 )

' * )+7 +( )' () *+ *()K ' ' + + ' *1 *+ + @

, "* 9) *+ +" 2*( ) ) )' ),( * 9 '

)' () ' ' + " + *)+ *+ ( 2*+ )+ ' * ) + *, *()K

' ' + 9 ) )"*( ' ' + * +" 2*( *+

)+2 )7* ) ' , )+ )" )+7 *()K ' ' + *

)' () ' ' + + , *,( * * )' () ' ' + " + *)+

* )) +*( )+ ' * ) + *, @ )" ) + 9 )' ()

' ' + ( , , *+ )" ) + 9 ) )"*(( ' *

' ' +

"* )' () ' ' + =2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) >* * ?

*" *( ) ), ) + *+ 9 *2 ) + ' * , @

9 *2 ' ) + * " @ + 2 ' ' +

* " , "*+ , ? * (( 9)+7D

. ' () 2 (* )() " + *)+ * )) +*( )+ ' * ) + *,

2 (* )() @ ) )" ) + 9 )' () 2 (* )() )+ "

*() 2 (* )() ) , *+ )" ) + 9

) )"*(2 (* )()

.! ' () 1 9+ " + *)+ * )) +*( )+ ' * ) + *,

1 9+ @ ) )" ) + 9 )' () 1 9+ )+ "

(45)

*() 1 9+ ) , *+ )" ) + 9 ) )"*( 1 9+

.- ' () 1 ) " + *)+ * )) +*( )+ ' * ) + *,

1 ) @ ) )" ) + 9 )' () 1 ) )+ "

*() 1 ) ) , *+ )" ) + 9

) )"*(1 )

(46)

6. DATA AND METHODOLOGY

6.1. Data

* * )+ ) " ' ) * *)( * * ' *+ "1

)+ ? C *+ ) 2) , (*+ E S++( + )+*+")*( "

)' ) * * ) 4 &&& G !# ! !00 *" * @ * * " + *)+

+ 3 3 * )" C )+ ? *+ ) + + )+ ?

C )+ ? ) "*(( ' *+" )+ ?@ ) * *( * , + * ;

"* )*( " *+7 *+ )2) + *)( + )+7 )" C )+ ? *

"*(( *)( ( ' + )" ' *+)+7 * ) ) )" (* * *

"" )+7 (* ' )+ * )+7 + *+ ?" *+7 * )+7 * )

) + ),( ' )+ * )" + " + )) + ) )"

' )+ + ( " ' * 1 " + )) + @ " S 9)((

( ' + )" = " S !00!>

)7 & )(( * , *2) C )+ ? )+7 , 2* ) + )

) "*+ , + ' 7 * ' * 1 " + )) + *2 , + 2 2 (* )(

)+7 ) 5 * &&& )+ ? * * * 000 ( 2 (

+ )( + * 9 + ) ( #000 ( 2 ()+ ' * " !000

*1)+7 *(( )' )7 )+ ' * " !000 C )+ ? , 7*+ *((*+

9+ + (* )(( + , 2* ) + ) '

)" ) + )+ 2) 9 ' * 1 ) * ) + * , + " *(( +7)+7@ , "*

* , + ' *+ + " *+7 )+ ) " ) + )+ ? +

9 @ )+ * +*' ,)7 ' *; + * , + * ( *

) + ' )+ + ' * 1 ) I * ) &&&@

) *+ 9+ + )+ !0003!00

(47)

& *? )+ ? 4 &&& G !# ! !00

*" * * * " + *)+ ( ' + )" ) + 9) * ( * 4

) + ' * )) 9) *, !0 ) + )1 )" *" ) ,2) *

*(( * * "*+ + , *1 + )+ @ *+ ) ) + 2 +

*' ( @ *7*)+ 9 )" * @ ) ' , *9)+7 *

*+ ' *' ( * ' )' ) *' ( " + )

*+ ' *9 * *" ' + *( *' ( )K ) 0# *

" * *" ) )" *)( + * * * 7 * )"*(( )(( * )+ )7

0@ 9 )( *,( ' ' * ) " ) )2 * ) )" " ) )2

"( * ( 9@ ( 7* ) ' )" *)( + * + + ' *(( ) ), *+

+ ) * * "( * ( ? ),) + 7* )2 1 9+ *+ ?" ))2 1 )

* &&& *+ !000 ) ), ) + * + "( * ( 1 9 , * &&&

? ),) + +3+ ' *( 1 ) @ 9 )( + )+ * !000 *" *(( ' ,

(48)

8 ) + ' *(( ) ), " ) )2 * !00 * )' )(* * + ) * *@ 1 9+ , )+7 30@4 *+ 1 ) , )+7 * )7 * @4

'() * ) )"*(" * *" ) )" *? )+ ? *)( + * &&&3!00

N Mean Median Std.Dev. Skewness Std. Error KurtosisStd. Error 759 0,00004 0,00057 0,016 -0,212 0,089 4,870 0,177 1999 252 0,00125 0,00140 0,014 0,071 0,153 4,414 0,306 2000 254 -0,00025 -0,00012 0,015 0,016 0,153 2,942 0,304 2001 253 -0,00087 -0,00071 0,018 -0,395 0,153 5,446 0,305 Entire data

1999-2001

(49)

/ &&& G !00 / &&&

/ !000 / !00

* 7* ) ' )" *)( +

(50)

*" * )+ *' ( *+ *" ' * ) * * * @ * ' *

*() 2 (* )() = *+ * 2)* ) +>@ 3 1 9+ *+ 31 ) ' * )

) "*(" (* 5 "*(" (* )+7 *() ' ' + * * '

, *2* *+ $ )((* =!000> ' (* *() 2 (* )() = >@

1 9+ = : >*+ 1 ) = : >@ " )2 ( @ * (( 9)+7D

=40>

=4 >

=4!>

)' * ) + )' () 2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) ) + )+7 ( *

8 * ' )+)' ) * ) + ' @ 9 )" ) ) " * () )+ " * 4 ! )

2 *' ' * )+ ) , * E = &&6 E && > *+

*2* E $ )((* =!00 > )' * )' () ' ' + * , *)+ *"

* *+ *" ' * ) )+ * * *' ( @ * " + )+7

) )"*( *+ *() ' ' + ' @ *( ,(*"13 " (

)' () 2 (* )() ) "*(" (* +*,( " ' * ) + , 9 + )" ) +

9 ,(*"13 " ( *+ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) * ; ' ( *" *(

)' * ) + " ) "* ) , )+7 ()+ ? ,* " *2 @ 9 )" )

* )7 3( 2 (' * ' * )"*( 7 *' *+ ) ' ( " ' * ),( *+ " ' * *,(

9 ((1+ 9+ 5 * *,3 7 *'

" ) )2 * ) )" )' * ,(*"13 " ( )' () 2 (* )() @ 7 *' 3

" * () )' () 2 (* )() @ 3 1 9+ *+ 31 ) * + )+ *,( !

, ( 9 *+ )+ ' *(2* )*+" ) 7 * )"*(( )(( * )+ )7

" ) )2 9@ + *2 *7 @ )' () ) ), ) + * + 7* )2 ( 1 9

*+ ? ),) ))2 ?" 1 ) % + " ' * *()

) ), ) + @ ) "*+ , + * )' () ) ), ) + * ' * )"*((

' + 7* )2 ( 1 9 *() 1 9+ + ) * * ) 30@! ! 9 )(

)' () 1 9+ ) + *2 *7 * )7 * 30@# 4 ( , + * + )

)' () 2 (* )() @ 1 9+ + 1 ) ) )+ ' *(( *,(

(51)

'() " ) )2 * ) )" )' () ' ' +

Entire data Black and Scholes Gram-Charlier series expansion

1999-2001 Implied volatility Implied volatility Implied skewness Implied kurtosis

Mean 0,24860 0,25685 -0,85371 3,59257

Median 0,24205 0,25008 -0,87155 3,46049

Std.dev. 0,04520 0,04990 0,40472 0,81977

Minimum 0,16290 0,16180 -1,92450 1,56420

Maximum 0,44620 0,50470 0,72410 7,72060

# observations 410 410 410 410

Black and Scholes Gram-Charlier series expansion

1999 Implied volatility Implied volatility Implied skewness Implied kurtosis

Mean 0,26221 0,27330 -1,16935 4,03506

Median 0,25413 0,26455 -1,20530 3,81187

Std.dev. 0,04340 0,05000 0,30058 0,87602

Minimum 0,16550 0,16490 -1,92450 2,19920

Maximum 0,44620 0,50470 -0,16870 7,72060

# observations 137 137 137 137

Black and Scholes Gram-Charlier series expansion

2000 Implied volatility Implied volatility Implied skewness Implied kurtosis

Mean 0,24762 0,25458 -0,75194 3,40101

Median 0,24421 0,25562 -0,79828 3,29865

Std.dev. 0,03450 0,03700 0,37645 0,61503

Minimum 0,16400 0,16180 -1,39760 2,11470

Maximum 0,33050 0,33870 0,72410 5,71250

# observations 166 166 166 166

Black and Scholes Gram-Charlier series expansion

2001 Implied volatility Implied volatility Implied skewness Implied kurtosis

Mean 0,23270 0,23932 -0,60746 3,32322

Median 0,21387 0,22238 -0,63778 3,21689

Std.dev. 0,05590 0,05990 0,29881 0,79738

Minimum 0,16290 0,16340 -1,17580 1,56420

Maximum 0,42540 0,45250 0,11800 5,89350

# observations 107 107 107 107

(52)

(*"1 *+ " ( )' () 2 (* )() *' 3 * () )' () 2 (* )()

' () 1 9+ ' () 1 )

6.2. Research process

*" *( )+7 * " ) ) + 9) * )' ( 7 ) +

*+*( ) )+7 *() ' ' + * * + *+ )' () ' ' + * *

)" )' )(* 7 ) + 8 * ) + *() ' ' + *+ ) )"*(

' ' + * ' 7 ) + 8 * ) + 1 9+ *+ 1 ) *

*' * 8 * ) + 4- *+ 44 2 (* )() 9@ ?" 2 (* )() , )+7

(*" , " + )+7 ' ' +

=4-> σrealised =α +β1σhistorical

=44> σrealised =α +β1σimplied

(53)

7 ) + *+*( ) " +" +)+7 2 (* )() )" ) + *( (*"13

" ( )' () 2 (* )() ) * * )" * )" ) + 9

,(*"13 " ( )' () 2 (* )() *+ 7 *' 3" * () )' () 2 (* )() "*+ ,

" ' * )7 ' ' + +( 7 *' 3" * () )' () *+ ) )"*(

' * * @ , "* ) ) + ),( , *)+ ,(*"13 " ( )' ()

' * '

' @ ) ) ? ( 9 ) )"*(3 *+ )' () ' ' + " + *)+

' * )) +*()+ ' * ) + 9 + " ' ,)+ 7 ) ) + , ' )+7

7 ) + 8 * ) + 2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) )' )(*

8 * ) + 4 , ( 9

=4 > σrealised =α +β1σhistorical2σimplied

*( * ' + ) + @ )+7 , 2* ) + ) ' * 1 " + )) +

*2 , + 2 2 (* )( *+ * + , + + ) )+" ' *; + @ ,

' *+ ) + ' )+ + ' * 1 "" ) @ +

" ((* @ *+ *) *' +7 ' * 1 * )+2 ' + ") ) +

* ' * + ,* ) " + ' * 1 + )' + *+ ( +7 ' * )

) + ' * 1 + )' + "*+ " *+7 ' *+ )' + )( ' * ) ) 2 ) )" ( )" *(( " *+7 )+ ' * 1 *+ ) ' )7 , ( "

+ ) + )" ) + 9 ( +7 *+ ' )' () ' ' +

) + " + *" )+ *' ( *2 9) *+7 ' * )) @ " + *" ()

*+ *+7)+7 ' !0 * * @ 9 )( ( " )+7 ' *+ ) +

)+2 ' + )K + ' )7 *2 ) + "* 9

"* ' * ) ) @ * * *' ( ) () )+ 9 "* 7 ) +

,* ) ' * ) *+ + 7 ) + 8 * ) + + + ) * *

* () * * () *( ) + 9 () * * ) + " + *" * )2)

)+ "* 7 ) * *(( ) + 9) ( *+ 8 *( 00 *

' * ) * " + ) * ' * ) ) + *+ ) + 9) ' *+

00 * ' * ) * " + ) * ( +7 ' * ) ) +

? " * + *+ ) " ' ) )"*( (

(54)

7. EMPIRICAL RESULTS

) " * + *+ ) " ' ) )"*( ( )" )2 9

* )+7 7 ) + 8 * ) + =4-@ 44 *+ 4 > +

* () )+ " * 6 *+ ( 2 (* )() @ 1 9+ *+ 1 ) *

+ )+ ,3" * , ( 9

7.1. Results on implied volatility

) *((@ )" ) + 9 ) )"*( *+ )' () 2 (* )() +

2 (* )() ) )+7 ) + 7 ) + ' ( I .) )"*(@ ' ()

@ ' () *+ .) )"*( T ' () ' ( * + *

8 * ) + 4-@ 44 *+ 4 )+ 2) " * ( 2 (* )() )" ) +

* + )+ *,( -@ 9 )" ' ' * ) 7 ) + " )") + ) + ' ( )7+))"*+" ( 2 ( *" " )") + * + )+ * + ) , ( 9 " )") +

( )' ( * @ 9 + *(( ' * )) * ?*' )+ @ , @ ) )"*( *+

)' () =, *+ > 2 (* )()) " + *)+ * , *+ )*( *' + )+ ' * ) + 2 (* )() (( " )") + )7+))"*+ ( )

' K @ 9 )" ) 8 ) " + ) + 9) + )+7 *2* E $ )((* =!000>

*+ *+)+* E )7( 9 1) = &&->@ *( 7 *2* E $ )((* =!000> *

" )") + ) )"*( 2 (* )() + ) ' K ' @ )

( , + * " )") + *( )7+))"*+ ( ) ' + ' ,

+ 9 )" ) " + ) + 9) *+)+* E )7( 9 1)= &&->@ , ) )+ * " + * 9) *2* E $ )((* =!000> 9 " )") + )' () 2 (* )())

* ) )"*(( "( + ' , + ( " )") + * " ' * ) ' * " )") + , )' () 2 (* )()) = E >* ()7 ( )7

*+ " )") + ) )"*( 2 (* )()) ) "*+ , *( , 2 '

" )") + ' ( " ' ,)+)+7 , @ ) )"*( *+ )' () 2 (* )()) I )") + )' () 2 (* )() ) ()7 ( )7 * " )") + ) )"*(2 (* )()

(55)

' ( "*+ , " ' * , ) !G' * + ) )+ 2) 9

) ) + "( * 9 ) )"*( )' () 2 (* )()) ( , )"

2 (* )() ! ' * *(( ' ( * , 9 + 0@0!& G

0@04!@ 9 )" "*+ , " + ) , * ( 9 9 + " ' * !' *

* + 0@! 9 )" *2* E $ )((* =!000> )' () 2 (* )()

' ( )((@ )7 ! ' * ) * " ) 2 , ' ( " ' ,)+)+7 ,

) )"*( *+ )' () 2 (* )() )+ ' * ) +@ ) ' ()1 * +

?"( )2 *+ ( , " ' ,)+ * " ) 2 , )" ) + (

% + ' * ) ) ) ? ( *+ * * ) () )+ 9 "* 7 ) @

( ' () ( ) + ) )"*( ' ( * + ' " " *+7 @

?" )" ) + 9 , + 00 * ' , 2 + 9 I ( +

) )"*(2 (* )() + ' * ) 2 00 * + * ) )"*(( ) '

K @ *+ ! ' * ) * ( 9 * 0@00! , ' ( )+7 )' ()

2 (* )()) @ ' * ) () ' *1 * *' * )" " *+7 )+ ! G' * *+

( " )") + (( " )") + )' () ' ( )7+))"*(( ) '

, K *+ + ' , + )' () ' (@ ! *((' * )) )

0@0-4 *+ ) )' 2 0@ 0 *+ 0@ 6-@ ' * )) ( *+ 8 *( 00

*+ 2 00@ " )2 ( )' (*+ @ ( " )") + " *+7 *

' * ) )+" * I ( )' () + *(( ' * )) ) 0@!4# *+

' * )) + 8 *( 00 * ) ) 0@440@ 9 )( , )+7 G0@ -!

' * )) 2 00 *

@ ) ' ()1 ) * +7 + 7* )2 " (* ) + , 9 + )' ()

2 (* )() *+ 2 (* )() @ ) ' * 1 * ' 9 2 *" *+ *)(

)" 2 (* )() " " ( ( )' () ' (*

8 ) )' )(* )' () ' (I !' * )' () ' ( )' 2

9 + ' * )) * () )+ 9 ! *(( ' * )) ) 0@0!&@ 9 )( , )+7

0@0& *+ 0@ - ' * )) + 8 *( 00 *+ ' * )) 2 00@

" )2 ( ( @ ( " )") + ' * )) ) 0@- 4 *+ G0@ 06

( +7 ' * ) ) + @ ) )' )(* " *+7 ' ))2 + 7* )2

" )") + * 9* )+ )' () ' ( % + 9 *1 * ( 1 * ' (

" ' ,)+)+7 ) )"*( *+ )' () 2 (* )() )+ ' * ) +@ 9 , 2 )' )(*

+ +" )+ !' * * )+ , )' () ' ( I !)' 2 ' 0@04!

*((' * )) 0@ 00 ' * ) ) + *+ 0@ #- ( +7 ' * )

Viittaukset

LIITTYVÄT TIEDOSTOT

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